Effects
“The Brown decision was about the public schools, but it seems to have had a large impact upon every
aspect of American life except public schools.”
-Diane Ravitch, New York University
aspect of American life except public schools.”
-Diane Ravitch, New York University
The outcome was fierce and spread like wildfire throughout the United States; everyone became affected by the verdict whether they were for or against the Supreme Court’s decision. One year after the infamous ruling, the Supreme Court decided to consider arguments made by the school systems who were requesting relief on integration. School systems were putting forth no effort to integrate their schools. After reviewing the school system’s plea, the Supreme Court’s delegated that the task of integrating schools should be done “with all deliberate speed”(Rathbone 2). This decision came to be known as Brown II. Under pressure, the school system unwillingly integrated. Statutory racial segregation disappeared and with that, Houston elected an African American Mayor.
In Houston, the Caucasian community retaliated by abandoning the public school system. Even though there was not state mandated segregation, individuals within the community segregated themselves. States made legal obstacles in the way of integration. Georgia for example, made it a felony for any state official to spend public funds on integrating its schools. Mississippi and Louisiana made it illegal for students to attend racially mixed schools. The most prevalent obstacle was for the state to close down a public school and offer state-supported tuitions and grants for Caucasian students to attend private schools.
The Southern states were the most difficult to integrate. When federal courts mandated integration, the South responded with the Southern Manifesto. Southern political leaders came together to sign this document they felt would counter the Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board of Education. These leaders represented states from Arkansas to as far east as Florida to as far north as Virginia who all agreed that the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was a “clear abuse of judicial power” and these leaders further promised to use “all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent the use of force in its implementation”. With the Southern Manifesto, the South also chose to give their students Freedom of Choice plans. This meant that the students ‘agreed’ to desegregate but did not want to integrate. Under these plans, the schools stayed relatively unchanged, however the courts became more assertive and demanded a ‘statistical mixing of races’(Ravitch 3).
On September 23, 1957, President Eisenhower sent military troops to protect nine Arkansas students as they attended Central High School. From that point on, that situation will always be referred to as the Little Rock Nine. After the decision from Brown II, this incident became a substantial part of civil rights history. In the years that followed, there would be more hurdles for the United States to overcome. The Civil Rights Act
of 1964 forbade the discrimination of people based on sex and the legislation that included Title IX in 1972 required institutions what were receiving federal funding, to equalize spending amongst the races. With this legislation, some citizens sought to end all gender distinctions which led to the questioning of single-sexed institutions. Some felt that because of Title IX, all single-sexed institutions should close. Conversely, others felt that these types of institutions were voluntary and as long as they offered a ‘separate but equal’ facility, they were sufficient.
In 1978, twenty four years after the initial Brown v. Board of Education decision, Topeka’s attorneys contacted Linda Brown Smith, who had two children of her own in the Topeka school system; to be a plaintiff in reopening Brown v. Board of Education for a third time. The court’s decision would be known as Brown III. Attorneys were apprehensive that the school system’s ‘open enrollment’ would lead to further segregation because Caucasian parents would shift their children to ‘preferred’ schools. After twenty-five years, the district court reopened the case but did not favor the plaintiff. In 1989, the 10th Circuit
Court found on a two to one vote that the segregation remained with respect to staff and student assignment. By 1994, a new plan was approved which allowed new magnet schools to be built and the district redrawn.
In Houston, the Caucasian community retaliated by abandoning the public school system. Even though there was not state mandated segregation, individuals within the community segregated themselves. States made legal obstacles in the way of integration. Georgia for example, made it a felony for any state official to spend public funds on integrating its schools. Mississippi and Louisiana made it illegal for students to attend racially mixed schools. The most prevalent obstacle was for the state to close down a public school and offer state-supported tuitions and grants for Caucasian students to attend private schools.
The Southern states were the most difficult to integrate. When federal courts mandated integration, the South responded with the Southern Manifesto. Southern political leaders came together to sign this document they felt would counter the Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board of Education. These leaders represented states from Arkansas to as far east as Florida to as far north as Virginia who all agreed that the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was a “clear abuse of judicial power” and these leaders further promised to use “all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent the use of force in its implementation”. With the Southern Manifesto, the South also chose to give their students Freedom of Choice plans. This meant that the students ‘agreed’ to desegregate but did not want to integrate. Under these plans, the schools stayed relatively unchanged, however the courts became more assertive and demanded a ‘statistical mixing of races’(Ravitch 3).
On September 23, 1957, President Eisenhower sent military troops to protect nine Arkansas students as they attended Central High School. From that point on, that situation will always be referred to as the Little Rock Nine. After the decision from Brown II, this incident became a substantial part of civil rights history. In the years that followed, there would be more hurdles for the United States to overcome. The Civil Rights Act
of 1964 forbade the discrimination of people based on sex and the legislation that included Title IX in 1972 required institutions what were receiving federal funding, to equalize spending amongst the races. With this legislation, some citizens sought to end all gender distinctions which led to the questioning of single-sexed institutions. Some felt that because of Title IX, all single-sexed institutions should close. Conversely, others felt that these types of institutions were voluntary and as long as they offered a ‘separate but equal’ facility, they were sufficient.
In 1978, twenty four years after the initial Brown v. Board of Education decision, Topeka’s attorneys contacted Linda Brown Smith, who had two children of her own in the Topeka school system; to be a plaintiff in reopening Brown v. Board of Education for a third time. The court’s decision would be known as Brown III. Attorneys were apprehensive that the school system’s ‘open enrollment’ would lead to further segregation because Caucasian parents would shift their children to ‘preferred’ schools. After twenty-five years, the district court reopened the case but did not favor the plaintiff. In 1989, the 10th Circuit
Court found on a two to one vote that the segregation remained with respect to staff and student assignment. By 1994, a new plan was approved which allowed new magnet schools to be built and the district redrawn.
For further information on the United States fifty nine years after the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas trial, continue to Present Day.
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